C ++性能挑战：整数到std :: string的转换

谁能击败下面链接到std :: string代码的整数的性能？

已经有几个问题可以解释如何std::string在C ++中将整数转换为一个整数，例如this，但是所提供的解决方案都不有效。

以下是可与之竞争的一些常见方法的编译就绪代码：

• 使用stringstream的“ C ++方式”：http : //ideone.com/jh3Sa
• sprintf，SO-ers通常向注重性能的人推荐：sprintf：http : //ideone.com/82kwR

与流行的看法相反，boost::lexical_cast它具有自己的实现（白皮书），并且不使用stringstream和数字插入运算符。我真的很想比较它的性能，因为另一个问题表明它很惨。

我自己的贡献在台式计算机上具有竞争力，并且展示了一种在嵌入式系统上也可以全速运行的方法，这与依赖于整数模的算法不同：

• Ben的算法：http：//ideone.com/SsEUW

如果您想使用该代码，我将在简化的BSD许可下使它可用（允许用于商业用途，需要提供署名）。只是问问。

最后，该功能ltoa是非标准的，但可广泛使用。

• ltoa版本，适用于拥有提供该版本的编译器的用户（ideone不提供）：http ://ideone.com/T5Wim

我将很快发布我的绩效评估作为答案。

算法规则

• 提供用于将至少32位有符号和无符号整数转换为十进制的代码。
• 将输出生成为std::string。
• 没有与线程和信号不兼容的技巧（例如，静态缓冲区）。
• 您可以假设使用ASCII字符集。
• 确保在以下位置测试您的代码 INT_MIN在绝对值无法表示的二进制补码机上。
• 理想情况下，输出应与使用的标准C ++版本的字符换字符相同stringstream，http://ideone.com/jh3Sa，但任何事情，这显然是理解的，因为正确的号码也是OK。
• 新增：尽管您可以使用想要进行比较的任何编译器和优化器选项（完全禁用除外），但至少在VC ++ 2010和g ++下，代码也需要编译并给出正确的结果。

希望进行的讨论

除了更好的算法，我还想在几种不同的平台和编译器上获得一些基准（让我们使用MB / s吞吐量作为我们的标准度量单位）。我相信算法的代码（我知道sprintf基准测试有一些捷径-现在已经确定），至少在ASCII假设下，该代码是标准明确定义的行为，但是如果您看到任何未定义的行为或输入，则输出为无效，请指出。

结论：

g ++和VC2010的算法不同，可能是由于每种算法的实现不同std::string。显然，VC2010在NRVO方面做得更好，仅在gcc上摆脱了按价值回报的方法。

发现代码的性能要好sprintf一个数量级。 ostringstream落后50倍甚至更多。

挑战的赢家是user434507，该用户生成的代码在gcc上运行我自己的速度的350％。由于SO社区的异想天开，其他条目已关闭。

当前（最终？）速度冠军是：

• 对于gcc：user434507，速度比快8倍sprintf： http
• 对于Visual C ++：Timo，速度比sprintf：http : //ideone.com/VpKO3快15倍

#include <string>

const char digit_pairs[201] = {
  "00010203040506070809"
  "10111213141516171819"
  "20212223242526272829"
  "30313233343536373839"
  "40414243444546474849"
  "50515253545556575859"
  "60616263646566676869"
  "70717273747576777879"
  "80818283848586878889"
  "90919293949596979899"
};


std::string& itostr(int n, std::string& s)
{
    if(n==0)
    {
        s="0";
        return s;
    }

    int sign = -(n<0);
    unsigned int val = (n^sign)-sign;

    int size;
    if(val>=10000)
    {
        if(val>=10000000)
        {
            if(val>=1000000000)
                size=10;
            else if(val>=100000000)
                size=9;
            else 
                size=8;
        }
        else
        {
            if(val>=1000000)
                size=7;
            else if(val>=100000)
                size=6;
            else
                size=5;
        }
    }
    else 
    {
        if(val>=100)
        {
            if(val>=1000)
                size=4;
            else
                size=3;
        }
        else
        {
            if(val>=10)
                size=2;
            else
                size=1;
        }
    }
    size -= sign;
    s.resize(size);
    char* c = &s[0];
    if(sign)
        *c='-';

    c += size-1;
    while(val>=100)
    {
       int pos = val % 100;
       val /= 100;
       *(short*)(c-1)=*(short*)(digit_pairs+2*pos); 
       c-=2;
    }
    while(val>0)
    {
        *c--='0' + (val % 10);
        val /= 10;
    }
    return s;
}

std::string& itostr(unsigned val, std::string& s)
{
    if(val==0)
    {
        s="0";
        return s;
    }

    int size;
    if(val>=10000)
    {
        if(val>=10000000)
        {
            if(val>=1000000000)
                size=10;
            else if(val>=100000000)
                size=9;
            else 
                size=8;
        }
        else
        {
            if(val>=1000000)
                size=7;
            else if(val>=100000)
                size=6;
            else
                size=5;
        }
    }
    else 
    {
        if(val>=100)
        {
            if(val>=1000)
                size=4;
            else
                size=3;
        }
        else
        {
            if(val>=10)
                size=2;
            else
                size=1;
        }
    }

    s.resize(size);
    char* c = &s[size-1];
    while(val>=100)
    {
       int pos = val % 100;
       val /= 100;
       *(short*)(c-1)=*(short*)(digit_pairs+2*pos); 
       c-=2;
    }
    while(val>0)
    {
        *c--='0' + (val % 10);
        val /= 10;
    }
    return s;
}

这将在不允许未对齐内存访问的系统上崩溃（在这种情况下，第一个未对齐内存分配将通过 *(short*)会导致段错误），但否则应该会很好地工作。

要做的重要一件事是最大程度地减少的使用std::string。（我知道是讽刺的。）例如，在Visual Studio中，即使在编译器选项中指定了/ Ob2，大多数对std :: string方法的调用也不是内联的。因此，即使像调用一样琐碎的事情（std::string::clear()您可能希望很快），在将CRT作为静态库进行链接时也可能需要100个时钟，而作为DLL进行链接时可能要花费300个时钟。

出于相同的原因，按引用返回更好，因为它避免了赋值，构造函数和析构函数。

啊，顺便说一下挑战...我对此很开心。

我有两种算法要提交（如果您想跳到它的底部，代码在底部）。在比较中，我要求该函数返回一个字符串，并且该函数可以处理int和unsigned int。将没有构造字符串的事物与那些没有构造字符串的事物进行比较实际上没有任何意义。

第一个是一个有趣的实现，它不使用任何预先计算的查找表或显式除法/模。这个与其他具有gcc的竞争者以及与msvc上除Timo之外的所有竞争者都具有竞争力（出于充分的理由，我在下面进行解释）。第二种算法是我实际提交的最高性能的算法。在我的测试中，它在gcc和msvc上都击败了其他所有软件。

我想我知道为什么MSVC上的某些结果很好。std :: string有两个相关的构造函数 std::string(char* str, size_t n)
，
std::string(ForwardIterator b, ForwardIterator e)
gcc对它们两者都执行相同的操作...也就是说，它使用第二个实现第一个。与VC相比，第一个构造函数的实现效率显着提高。这样做的附带好处是，在某些情况下（例如我的快速代码和Timo的代码），可以内联字符串构造函数。实际上，在我的代码中，仅在MSVC中的这些构造函数之间进行切换几乎是2倍的差异。

我的性能测试结果：

代码来源：

- 福格特
- 蒂莫
- ergosys
- user434507
- 用户福格特-蒂莫
- 霍普曼杯乐趣
- 霍普曼杯快

Ubuntu 10.10 64位Core i5上的gcc 4.4.5 -O2

hopman_fun：124.688 MB /秒-8.020 s
hopman_fast：137.552 MB /秒-7.270 s
声音：120.192 MB /秒-8.320 s
user_voigt_timo：97.9432 MB /秒-10.210 s
timo：120.482 MB /秒-8.300 s
用户：97.7517 MB / sec-10.230 s
ergosys：101.42 MB /秒-9.860 s

Windows 7 64位Core i5上的MSVC 2010 64位/ Ox

hopman_fun：127 MB /秒-7.874 s
hopman_fast：259 MB /秒-3.861 s
声音：221.435 MB /秒-4.516 s
user_voigt_timo：195.695 MB /秒--- 5.110 s
timo：253.165 MB /秒--- 3.950 s
用户：212.63 MB / sec-4.703 s
ergosys：78.0518 MB /秒-12.812 s

这是一些有关ideone的结果和测试/时序框架
http://ideone.com/XZRqp
注意ideone是32位环境。我的两个算法都受此困扰，但是hopman_fast至少仍具有竞争力。

请注意，对于那些不能构造字符串的两个或多个，我添加了以下函数模板：

template <typename T>
std::string itostr(T t) {
    std::string ret;
    itostr(t, ret);
    return ret;
}

现在为我的代码...第一个有趣的是：

    // hopman_fun

template <typename T> 
T reduce2(T v) {
    T k = ((v * 410) >> 12) & 0x000F000F000F000Full;
    return (((v - k * 10) << 8) + k);
}

template <typename T>
T reduce4(T v) {
    T k = ((v * 10486) >> 20) & 0xFF000000FFull;
    return reduce2(((v - k * 100) << 16) + (k));
}

typedef unsigned long long ull;
inline ull reduce8(ull v) {
    ull k = ((v * 3518437209u) >> 45);
    return reduce4(((v - k * 10000) << 32) + (k));
}

template <typename T>
std::string itostr(T o) {
    union {
        char str[16];
        unsigned short u2[8];
        unsigned u4[4];
        unsigned long long u8[2];
    };

    unsigned v = o < 0 ? ~o + 1 : o;

    u8[0] = (ull(v) * 3518437209u) >> 45;
    u8[0] = (u8[0] * 28147497672ull);
    u8[1] = v - u2[3] * 100000000;

    u8[1] = reduce8(u8[1]);
    char* f;
    if (u2[3]) {
        u2[3] = reduce2(u2[3]);
        f = str + 6;
    } else {
        unsigned short* k = u4[2] ? u2 + 4 : u2 + 6;
        f = *k ? (char*)k : (char*)(k + 1);
    }
    if (!*f) f++;

    u4[1] |= 0x30303030;
    u4[2] |= 0x30303030;
    u4[3] |= 0x30303030;
    if (o < 0) *--f = '-';
    return std::string(f, (str + 16) - f);
}

然后是快速的：

    // hopman_fast

struct itostr_helper {
    static unsigned out[10000];

    itostr_helper() {
        for (int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) {
            unsigned v = i;
            char * o = (char*)(out + i);
            o[3] = v % 10 + '0';
            o[2] = (v % 100) / 10 + '0';
            o[1] = (v % 1000) / 100 + '0';
            o[0] = (v % 10000) / 1000;
            if (o[0]) o[0] |= 0x30;
            else if (o[1] != '0') o[0] |= 0x20;
            else if (o[2] != '0') o[0] |= 0x10;
            else o[0] |= 0x00;
        }
    }
};
unsigned itostr_helper::out[10000];

itostr_helper hlp_init;

template <typename T>
std::string itostr(T o) {
    typedef itostr_helper hlp;

    unsigned blocks[3], *b = blocks + 2;
    blocks[0] = o < 0 ? ~o + 1 : o;
    blocks[2] = blocks[0] % 10000; blocks[0] /= 10000;
    blocks[2] = hlp::out[blocks[2]];

    if (blocks[0]) {
        blocks[1] = blocks[0] % 10000; blocks[0] /= 10000;
        blocks[1] = hlp::out[blocks[1]];
        blocks[2] |= 0x30303030;
        b--;
    }

    if (blocks[0]) {
        blocks[0] = hlp::out[blocks[0] % 10000];
        blocks[1] |= 0x30303030;
        b--;
    }

    char* f = ((char*)b);
    f += 3 - (*f >> 4);

    char* str = (char*)blocks;
    if (o < 0) *--f = '-';
    return std::string(f, (str + 12) - f);
}

问题中提供的代码的基准数据：

在ideone（GCC 4.3.4）上：

• 串流：4.4 MB / s
• sprintf：25.0 MB / s
• 我的（本·沃格特）：55.8 MB / s
• Timo：58.5 MB /秒
• user434507：199 MB / s
• user434507的Ben-Timo-507混合动力：263 MB / s

核心i7，Windows 7 64位，8 GB RAM，Visual C ++ 2010 32位：

cl /Ox /EHsc

• 字符串流：3.39 MB / s，3.67 MB / s
• sprintf：16.8 MB /秒，16.2 MB /秒
• 我的：194 MB / s，207 MB / s（启用PGO：250 MB / s）

核心i7，Windows 7 64位，8 GB RAM，Visual C ++ 2010 64位：

cl /Ox /EHsc

• 字符串流：4.42 MB / s，4.92 MB / s
• sprintf：21.0 MB / s，20.8 MB / s
• 我的：238 MB / s，228 MB / s

核心i7，Windows 7 64位，8 GB RAM，cygwin gcc 4.3.4：

g++ -O3

• 字符串流：2.19 MB / s，2.17 MB / s
• sprintf：13.1 MB /秒，13.4 MB /秒
• 我的：30.0 MB / s，30.2 MB / s

编辑：我要添加自己的答案，但问题已关闭，所以我在这里添加。:)我编写了自己的算法，并设法对Ben的代码进行了相当大的改进，尽管我仅在MSVC 2010中对其进行了测试。我还使用与Ben最初的原始测试相同的测试设置，对迄今为止介绍的所有实现进行了基准测试。码。-蒂莫

英特尔Q9450，Win XP 32位，MSVC 2010

cl /O2 /EHsc

• 串流：2.87 MB / s
• sprintf：16.1 MB /秒
• 本：202 MB / s
• Ben（无符号缓冲区）：82.0 MB / s
• ergosys（更新版本）：64.2 MB / s
• user434507：172 MB /秒
• 提摩（Timo）：241 MB / s

--

const char digit_pairs[201] = {
  "00010203040506070809"
  "10111213141516171819"
  "20212223242526272829"
  "30313233343536373839"
  "40414243444546474849"
  "50515253545556575859"
  "60616263646566676869"
  "70717273747576777879"
  "80818283848586878889"
  "90919293949596979899"
};

static const int BUFFER_SIZE = 11;

std::string itostr(int val)
{
  char buf[BUFFER_SIZE];
  char *it = &buf[BUFFER_SIZE-2];

  if(val>=0) {
    int div = val/100;
    while(div) {
      memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[2*(val-div*100)],2);
      val = div;
      it-=2;
      div = val/100;
    }
    memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[2*val],2);
    if(val<10)
      it++;
  } else {
    int div = val/100;
    while(div) {
      memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[-2*(val-div*100)],2);
      val = div;
      it-=2;
      div = val/100;
    }
    memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[-2*val],2);
    if(val<=-10)
      it--;
    *it = '-';
  }

  return std::string(it,&buf[BUFFER_SIZE]-it);
}

std::string itostr(unsigned int val)
{
  char buf[BUFFER_SIZE];
  char *it = (char*)&buf[BUFFER_SIZE-2];

  int div = val/100;
  while(div) {
    memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[2*(val-div*100)],2);
    val = div;
    it-=2;
    div = val/100;
  }
  memcpy(it,&digit_pairs[2*val],2);
  if(val<10)
    it++;

  return std::string((char*)it,(char*)&buf[BUFFER_SIZE]-(char*)it);
}

虽然我们在此处获得有关算法的信息非常不错，但我认为问题“不完整”，我将解释为什么会这样：

该问题要求采用int-> std::string转换的性能，在比较常用的方法（例如不同的stringstream实现或boost :: lexical_cast）时，这可能很有趣。但是，在要求新代码（一种专用算法）来执行此操作时，这没有任何意义。原因是int2string总是会涉及std :: string的堆分配，如果我们试图从转换算法中挤出最后一个，我认为将这些测量值与std完成的堆分配混合起来是没有道理的： ：串。如果我想执行性能转换，我将始终使用固定大小的缓冲区，并且绝对不要在堆上分配任何东西！

总而言之，我认为时间应该分开：

• 首先，最快的（int->固定缓冲区）转换。
• 其次，复制（固定缓冲区-> std :: string）的时间。
• 第三，检查如何将std :: string分配直接用作缓冲区，以保存复制。

恕我直言，这些方面不应混为一谈。

我无法在VS下进行测试，但这似乎比您的g ++代码快大约10％。可能会进行调整，选择的决策值是猜测。仅int，对不起。

typedef unsigned buf_t; 

static buf_t * reduce(unsigned val, buf_t * stp) {
   unsigned above = val / 10000; 
   if (above != 0) {
      stp = reduce(above, stp); 
      val -= above * 10000; 
   }

   buf_t digit  = val / 1000; 
   *stp++ = digit + '0'; 
   val -= digit * 1000; 

   digit  = val / 100; 
   *stp++ = digit + '0'; 
   val -= digit * 100; 

   digit  = val / 10; 
   *stp++ = digit + '0'; 
   val -= digit * 10; 
   *stp++ = val + '0'; 
   return stp; 
}

std::string itostr(int input) {

   buf_t buf[16]; 


   if(input == INT_MIN) {  
      char buf2[16]; 
      std::sprintf(buf2, "%d", input); 
      return std::string(buf2); 
   }

   // handle negative
   unsigned val = input;
   if(input < 0) 
      val = -input;

   buf[0] = '0'; 
   buf_t* endp = reduce(val, buf+1); 
   *endp = 127; 

   buf_t * stp = buf+1; 
   while (*stp == '0') 
      stp++;
   if (stp == endp)
      stp--; 

   if (input < 0) { 
      stp--; 
      *stp = '-'; 
   }
   return std::string(stp, endp); 
}

更新了user2985907的答案... modp_ufast ...

Integer To String Test (Type 1)
[modp_ufast]Numbers: 240000000  Total:   657777786      Time:  1.1633sec        Rate:206308473.0686nums/sec
[sprintf] Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time: 24.3629sec        Rate:  9851045.8556nums/sec
[karma]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  5.2389sec        Rate: 45810870.7171nums/sec
[strtk]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  3.3126sec        Rate: 72450283.7492nums/sec
[so   ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  3.0828sec        Rate: 77852152.8820nums/sec
[timo ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  4.7349sec        Rate: 50687912.9889nums/sec
[voigt]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  5.1689sec        Rate: 46431985.1142nums/sec
[hopman]  Numbers: 240000000    Total:   657777786      Time:  4.6169sec        Rate: 51982554.6497nums/sec
Press any key to continue . . .

Integer To String Test(Type 2)
[modp_ufast]Numbers: 240000000  Total:   660000000      Time:  0.5072sec        Rate:473162716.4618nums/sec
[sprintf] Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time: 22.3483sec        Rate: 10739062.9383nums/sec
[karma]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  4.2471sec        Rate: 56509024.3035nums/sec
[strtk]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  2.1683sec        Rate:110683636.7123nums/sec
[so   ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  2.7133sec        Rate: 88454602.1423nums/sec
[timo ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  2.8030sec        Rate: 85623453.3872nums/sec
[voigt]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  3.4019sec        Rate: 70549286.7776nums/sec
[hopman]  Numbers: 240000000    Total:   660000000      Time:  2.7849sec        Rate: 86178023.8743nums/sec
Press any key to continue . . .

Integer To String Test (type 3)
[modp_ufast]Numbers: 240000000  Total:   505625000      Time:  1.6482sec        Rate:145610315.7819nums/sec
[sprintf] Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time: 20.7064sec        Rate: 11590618.6109nums/sec
[karma]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  4.3036sec        Rate: 55767734.3570nums/sec
[strtk]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  2.9297sec        Rate: 81919227.9275nums/sec
[so   ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  3.0278sec        Rate: 79266003.8158nums/sec
[timo ]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  4.0631sec        Rate: 59068204.3266nums/sec
[voigt]   Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  4.5616sec        Rate: 52613393.0285nums/sec
[hopman]  Numbers: 240000000    Total:   505625000      Time:  4.1248sec        Rate: 58184194.4569nums/sec
Press any key to continue . . .

int ufast_utoa10(unsigned int value, char* str)
{
#define JOIN(N) N "0", N "1", N "2", N "3", N "4", N "5", N "6", N "7", N "8", N "9"
#define JOIN2(N) JOIN(N "0"), JOIN(N "1"), JOIN(N "2"), JOIN(N "3"), JOIN(N "4"), \
                 JOIN(N "5"), JOIN(N "6"), JOIN(N "7"), JOIN(N "8"), JOIN(N "9")
#define JOIN3(N) JOIN2(N "0"), JOIN2(N "1"), JOIN2(N "2"), JOIN2(N "3"), JOIN2(N "4"), \
                 JOIN2(N "5"), JOIN2(N "6"), JOIN2(N "7"), JOIN2(N "8"), JOIN2(N "9")
#define JOIN4    JOIN3("0"), JOIN3("1"), JOIN3("2"), JOIN3("3"), JOIN3("4"), \
                 JOIN3("5"), JOIN3("6"), JOIN3("7"), JOIN3("8"), JOIN3("9")
#define JOIN5(N) JOIN(N), JOIN(N "1"), JOIN(N "2"), JOIN(N "3"), JOIN(N "4"), \
                 JOIN(N "5"), JOIN(N "6"), JOIN(N "7"), JOIN(N "8"), JOIN(N "9")
#define JOIN6    JOIN5(), JOIN5("1"), JOIN5("2"), JOIN5("3"), JOIN5("4"), \
                 JOIN5("5"), JOIN5("6"), JOIN5("7"), JOIN5("8"), JOIN5("9")
#define F(N)     ((N) >= 100 ? 3 : (N) >= 10 ? 2 : 1)
#define F10(N)   F(N),F(N+1),F(N+2),F(N+3),F(N+4),F(N+5),F(N+6),F(N+7),F(N+8),F(N+9)
#define F100(N)  F10(N),F10(N+10),F10(N+20),F10(N+30),F10(N+40),\
                 F10(N+50),F10(N+60),F10(N+70),F10(N+80),F10(N+90)
  static const short offsets[] = { F100(0), F100(100), F100(200), F100(300), F100(400),
                                  F100(500), F100(600), F100(700), F100(800), F100(900)};
  static const char table1[][4] = { JOIN("") }; 
  static const char table2[][4] = { JOIN2("") }; 
  static const char table3[][4] = { JOIN3("") };
  static const char table4[][5] = { JOIN4 }; 
  static const char table5[][4] = { JOIN6 };
#undef JOIN
#undef JOIN2
#undef JOIN3
#undef JOIN4
  char *wstr;
  int remains[2];
  unsigned int v2;
  if (value >= 100000000) {
    v2 = value / 10000;
    remains[0] = value - v2 * 10000;
    value = v2;
    v2 = value / 10000;
    remains[1] = value - v2 * 10000;
    value = v2;
    wstr = str;
    if (value >= 1000) {
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[value];
      wstr += 4;
    } else {
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table5[value];
      wstr += offsets[value];
    }
    *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[remains[1]];
    wstr += 4;
    *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[remains[0]];
    wstr += 4;
    *wstr = 0;
    return (wstr - str);
  }
  else if (value >= 10000) {
    v2 = value / 10000;
    remains[0] = value - v2 * 10000;
    value = v2;
    wstr = str;
    if (value >= 1000) {
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[value];
      wstr += 4;
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[remains[0]];
      wstr += 4;
      *wstr = 0;
      return 8;
    } else {
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table5[value];
      wstr += offsets[value];
      *(__int32 *) wstr = *(__int32 *) table4[remains[0]];
      wstr += 4;
      *wstr = 0;
      return (wstr - str);
    }
  }
  else {
    if (value >= 1000) {
      *(__int32 *) str = *(__int32 *) table4[value];
      str += 4;
      *str = 0;
      return 4;
    } else if (value >= 100) {
      *(__int32 *) str = *(__int32 *) table3[value];
      return 3;
    } else if (value >= 10) {
      *(__int16 *) str = *(__int16 *) table2[value];
      str += 2;
      *str = 0;
      return 2;
    } else {
      *(__int16 *) str = *(__int16 *) table1[value];
      return 1;
    }
  }
}

int ufast_itoa10(int value, char* str) {
  if (value < 0) { *(str++) = '-'; 
    return ufast_utoa10(-value, str) + 1; 
  }
  else return ufast_utoa10(value, str);
}


    void ufast_test() {

   print_mode("[modp_ufast]");

   std::string s;
   s.reserve(32);
   std::size_t total_length = 0;
   strtk::util::timer t;
   t.start();

   char buf[128];
   int len;
   for (int i = (-max_i2s / 2); i < (max_i2s / 2); ++i)
   {
      #ifdef enable_test_type01
      s.resize(ufast_itoa10(((i & 1) ? i : -i), const_cast<char*>(s.c_str())));
      total_length += s.size();
      #endif

      #ifdef enable_test_type02
      s.resize(ufast_itoa10(max_i2s + i, const_cast<char*>(s.c_str())));
      total_length += s.size();
      #endif

      #ifdef enable_test_type03
      s.resize(ufast_itoa10(randval[(max_i2s + i) & 1023], const_cast<char*>(s.c_str())));
      total_length += s.size();
      #endif
   }
   t.stop();
   printf("Numbers:%10lu\tTotal:%12lu\tTime:%8.4fsec\tRate:%14.4fnums/sec\n",
          static_cast<unsigned long>(3 * max_i2s),
          static_cast<unsigned long>(total_length),
          t.time(),
          (3.0 * max_i2s) / t.time());
}

这是我对这个有趣难题的一点尝试。

我希望编译器能解决所有问题，而不是使用查找表。特别是在这种情况下-如果您阅读Hackers'Delight，则会看到除法和取模的工作原理-这使得使用SSE / AVX指令对其进行优化成为可能。

绩效基准

至于速度，我的基准测试告诉我它比Timo的工作快1.5倍（在我的Intel Haswell上，运行速度约为1 GB / s）。

你可以考虑作弊的事情

至于我所使用的不作标准的作弊技巧-当然，我也是Timo方法的基准。

我确实使用内在的：BSR。如果愿意，也可以使用DeBruijn表-这是我在“最快的2log”帖子中写的很多内容之一。当然，这确实会降低性能（*好吧……如果您要执行很多itoa操作，您实际上可以做出更快的BSR，但我想这是不公平的……）。

工作方式

首先要做的是弄清楚我们需要多少内存。这基本上是一个10log，可以用多种智能方式实现。参见经常引用的“ Bit Twiddling Hacks详细信息， ”。

下一步是执行数字输出。我为此使用模板递归，因此编译器会弄清楚。

我将“ modulo”和“ div”彼此相邻使用。如果您阅读Hacker's Delight，您会发现两者密切相关，因此，如果您有一个答案，那么您可能也会有另一个答案。我认为编译器可以弄清楚细节... :-)

代码

使用（已修改的）log10获取位数：

struct logarithm
{
    static inline int log2(unsigned int value)
    {
        unsigned long index;
        if (!_BitScanReverse(&index, value))
        {
            return 0;
        }

        // add 1 if x is NOT a power of 2 (to do the ceil)
        return index + (value&(value - 1) ? 1 : 0);
    }

    static inline int numberDigits(unsigned int v)
    {
        static unsigned int const PowersOf10[] =
        { 0, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000 };

        int t = (logarithm::log2(v) + 1) * 1233 >> 12; // (use a lg2 method from above)
        return 1 + t - (v < PowersOf10[t]);
    }
};

获取字符串：

template <int count>
struct WriteHelper
{
    inline static void WriteChar(char* buf, unsigned int value)
    {
        unsigned int div = value / 10;
        unsigned int rem = value % 10;
        buf[count - 1] = rem + '0';

        WriteHelper<count - 1>::WriteChar(buf, div);
    }
};

template <>
struct WriteHelper<1>
{
    inline static void WriteChar(char* buf, unsigned int value) 
    {
        buf[0] = '0' + value;
    }
};

// Boring code that converts a length into a switch.
// TODO: Test if recursion with an 'if' is faster.
static inline void WriteNumber(char* data, int len, unsigned int val) 
{
    switch (len) {
    case 1:
        WriteHelper<1>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 2:
        WriteHelper<2>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 3:
        WriteHelper<3>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 4:
        WriteHelper<4>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 5:
        WriteHelper<5>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 6:
        WriteHelper<6>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 7:
        WriteHelper<7>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 8:
        WriteHelper<8>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 9:
        WriteHelper<9>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    case 10:
        WriteHelper<10>::WriteChar(data, static_cast<unsigned int>(val));
        break;
    }
}

// The main method you want to call...
static int Write(char* data, int val) 
{
    int len;
    if (val >= 0) 
    {
        len = logarithm::numberDigits(val);
        WriteNumber(data, len, unsigned int(val));
        return len;
    }
    else 
    {
        unsigned int v(-val);
        len = logarithm::numberDigits(v);
        WriteNumber(data+1, len, v);
        data[0] = '-';
        return len + 1;
    }
}

我已经坐了一段时间，最后才发布它。

与一次双字相比，还有其他几种方法hopman_fast。结果是针对GCC的短字符串优化的std :: string的，否则性能差异将被写时复制字符串管理代码的开销所掩盖。吞吐量的测量方法与本主题中的其他部分相同，周期计数用于将输出缓冲区复制到字符串之前的代码的原始序列化部分。

HOPMAN_FAST - performance reference  
TM_CPP, TM_VEC - scalar and vector versions of Terje Mathisen algorithm  
WM_VEC - intrinsics implementation of Wojciech Mula's vector algorithm  
AK_BW - word-at-a-time routine with a jump table that fills a buffer in reverse  
AK_FW - forward-stepping word-at-a-time routine with a jump table in assembly  
AK_UNROLLED - generic word-at-a-time routine that uses an unrolled loop  

编译时开关：

-DVSTRING-为较旧的GCC设置启用SSO字符串
-DBSR1-启用快速log10
-DRDTSC-启用周期计数器

#include <cstdio>
#include <iostream>
#include <climits>
#include <sstream>
#include <algorithm>
#include <cstring>
#include <limits>
#include <ctime>
#include <stdint.h>
#include <x86intrin.h>

/* Uncomment to run */
// #define HOPMAN_FAST
// #define TM_CPP
// #define TM_VEC
// #define WM_VEC
// #define AK_UNROLLED
// #define AK_BW
// #define AK_FW

using namespace std;
#ifdef VSTRING
#include <ext/vstring.h>
typedef __gnu_cxx::__vstring string_type;
#else
typedef string string_type;
#endif

namespace detail {

#ifdef __GNUC__
#define ALIGN(N) __attribute__ ((aligned(N)))
#define PACK __attribute__ ((packed))
  inline size_t num_digits(unsigned u) {
    struct {
      uint32_t count;
      uint32_t max;
    } static digits[32] ALIGN(64) = {
    { 1, 9 }, { 1, 9 }, { 1, 9 }, { 1, 9 },
    { 2, 99 }, { 2, 99 }, { 2, 99 },
    { 3, 999 }, { 3, 999 }, { 3, 999 },
    { 4, 9999 }, { 4, 9999 }, { 4, 9999 }, { 4, 9999 },
    { 5, 99999 }, { 5, 99999 }, { 5, 99999 },
    { 6, 999999 }, { 6, 999999 }, { 6, 999999 },
    { 7, 9999999 }, { 7, 9999999 }, { 7, 9999999 }, { 7, 9999999 },
    { 8, 99999999 }, { 8, 99999999 }, { 8, 99999999 },
    { 9, 999999999 }, { 9, 999999999 }, { 9, 999999999 },
    { 10, UINT_MAX }, { 10, UINT_MAX }
    };
#if (defined(i386) || defined(__x86_64__)) && (defined(BSR1) || defined(BSR2))
    size_t l = u;
#if defined(BSR1)
    __asm__ __volatile__ (
      "bsrl %k0, %k0    \n\t"
      "shlq $32, %q1    \n\t" 
      "movq %c2(,%0,8), %0\n\t" 
      "cmpq %0, %q1     \n\t"
      "seta %b1         \n\t"
      "addl %1, %k0     \n\t"
      : "+r" (l), "+r"(u)
      : "i"(digits)
      : "cc"
    );
    return l;
#else
    __asm__ __volatile__ ( "bsr %0, %0;"  : "+r" (l) );
    return digits[l].count + ( u > digits[l].max );
#endif
#else
    size_t l = (u != 0) ? 31 - __builtin_clz(u) : 0;
    return digits[l].count + ( u > digits[l].max );
#endif 
  }
#else 
  inline unsigned msb_u32(unsigned x) {
    static const unsigned bval[] = { 0,1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,4 };
    unsigned base = 0;
    if (x & (unsigned) 0xFFFF0000) { base += 32/2; x >>= 32/2; }
    if (x & (unsigned) 0x0000FF00) { base += 32/4; x >>= 32/4; }
    if (x & (unsigned) 0x000000F0) { base += 32/8; x >>= 32/8; }
    return base + bval[x];
  }

  inline size_t num_digits(unsigned x) {
    static const unsigned powertable[] = {
  0,10,100,1000,10000,100000,1000000,10000000,100000000, 1000000000 };
    size_t lg_ten = msb_u32(x) * 1233 >> 12;
    size_t adjust = (x >= powertable[lg_ten]);
    return lg_ten + adjust;
  }
#endif /* __GNUC__ */

  struct CharBuffer {
    class reverse_iterator : public iterator<random_access_iterator_tag, char> {
        char* m_p;
      public:
        reverse_iterator(char* p) : m_p(p - 1) {}
        reverse_iterator operator++() { return --m_p; }
        reverse_iterator operator++(int) { return m_p--; }
        char operator*() const { return *m_p; }
        bool operator==( reverse_iterator it) const { return m_p == it.m_p; }
        bool operator!=( reverse_iterator it) const { return m_p != it.m_p; }
        difference_type operator-( reverse_iterator it) const { return it.m_p - m_p; }
    };
  };

  union PairTable {
    char c[2];
    unsigned short u;
  } PACK table[100] ALIGN(1024) = {
    {{'0','0'}},{{'0','1'}},{{'0','2'}},{{'0','3'}},{{'0','4'}},{{'0','5'}},{{'0','6'}},{{'0','7'}},{{'0','8'}},{{'0','9'}},
    {{'1','0'}},{{'1','1'}},{{'1','2'}},{{'1','3'}},{{'1','4'}},{{'1','5'}},{{'1','6'}},{{'1','7'}},{{'1','8'}},{{'1','9'}},
    {{'2','0'}},{{'2','1'}},{{'2','2'}},{{'2','3'}},{{'2','4'}},{{'2','5'}},{{'2','6'}},{{'2','7'}},{{'2','8'}},{{'2','9'}},
    {{'3','0'}},{{'3','1'}},{{'3','2'}},{{'3','3'}},{{'3','4'}},{{'3','5'}},{{'3','6'}},{{'3','7'}},{{'3','8'}},{{'3','9'}},
    {{'4','0'}},{{'4','1'}},{{'4','2'}},{{'4','3'}},{{'4','4'}},{{'4','5'}},{{'4','6'}},{{'4','7'}},{{'4','8'}},{{'4','9'}},
    {{'5','0'}},{{'5','1'}},{{'5','2'}},{{'5','3'}},{{'5','4'}},{{'5','5'}},{{'5','6'}},{{'5','7'}},{{'5','8'}},{{'5','9'}},
    {{'6','0'}},{{'6','1'}},{{'6','2'}},{{'6','3'}},{{'6','4'}},{{'6','5'}},{{'6','6'}},{{'6','7'}},{{'6','8'}},{{'6','9'}},
    {{'7','0'}},{{'7','1'}},{{'7','2'}},{{'7','3'}},{{'7','4'}},{{'7','5'}},{{'7','6'}},{{'7','7'}},{{'7','8'}},{{'7','9'}},
    {{'8','0'}},{{'8','1'}},{{'8','2'}},{{'8','3'}},{{'8','4'}},{{'8','5'}},{{'8','6'}},{{'8','7'}},{{'8','8'}},{{'8','9'}},
    {{'9','0'}},{{'9','1'}},{{'9','2'}},{{'9','3'}},{{'9','4'}},{{'9','5'}},{{'9','6'}},{{'9','7'}},{{'9','8'}},{{'9','9'}}
  };
} // namespace detail

struct progress_timer {
    clock_t c;
    progress_timer() : c(clock()) {}
    int elapsed() { return clock() - c; }
    ~progress_timer() {
        clock_t d = clock() - c;
        cout << d / CLOCKS_PER_SEC << "."
            << (((d * 1000) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC) % 1000 / 100)
            << (((d * 1000) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC) % 100 / 10)
            << (((d * 1000) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC) % 10)
            << " s" << endl;
    }
};

#ifdef HOPMAN_FAST
namespace hopman_fast {

    static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;

    struct itostr_helper {
        static ALIGN(1024) unsigned out[10000];

        itostr_helper() {
            for (int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) {
                unsigned v = i;
                char * o = (char*)(out + i);
                o[3] = v % 10 + '0';
                o[2] = (v % 100) / 10 + '0';
                o[1] = (v % 1000) / 100 + '0';
                o[0] = (v % 10000) / 1000;
                if (o[0]) o[0] |= 0x30;
                else if (o[1] != '0') o[0] |= 0x20;
                else if (o[2] != '0') o[0] |= 0x10;
                else o[0] |= 0x00;
            }
        }
    };
    unsigned itostr_helper::out[10000];

    itostr_helper hlp_init;

    template <typename T>
    string_type itostr(T o) {
        typedef itostr_helper hlp;
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        unsigned blocks[3], *b = blocks + 2;
        blocks[0] = o < 0 ? ~o + 1 : o;
        blocks[2] = blocks[0] % 10000; blocks[0] /= 10000;
        blocks[2] = hlp::out[blocks[2]];

        if (blocks[0]) {
            blocks[1] = blocks[0] % 10000; blocks[0] /= 10000;
            blocks[1] = hlp::out[blocks[1]];
            blocks[2] |= 0x30303030;
            b--;
        }

        if (blocks[0]) {
            blocks[0] = hlp::out[blocks[0] % 10000];
            blocks[1] |= 0x30303030;
            b--;
        }

        char* f = ((char*)b);
        f += 3 - (*f >> 4);

        char* str = (char*)blocks;
        if (o < 0) *--f = '-';

        str += 12;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(f, str);
    }
      unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
      void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
}
#endif

namespace ak {
#ifdef AK_UNROLLED
  namespace unrolled {
    static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;

    template <typename value_type> class Proxy {
      static const size_t MaxValueSize = 16;

      static inline char* generate(int value, char* buffer) {
        union { char* pc; unsigned short* pu; } b = { buffer + MaxValueSize };
        unsigned u, v = value < 0 ? unsigned(~value) + 1 : value;
        *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
        if ((v /= 100)) {
          *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
          if ((v /= 100)) {
            *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
            if ((v /= 100)) {
              *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
              if ((v /= 100)) {
                *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
        } } } }
        *(b.pc -= (u >= 10)) = '-';
        return b.pc + (value >= 0);
      }
      static inline char* generate(unsigned value, char* buffer) {
        union { char* pc; unsigned short* pu; } b = { buffer + MaxValueSize };
        unsigned u, v = value;
        *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
        if ((v /= 100)) {
          *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
          if ((v /= 100)) {
            *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
            if ((v /= 100)) {
              *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
              if ((v /= 100)) {
                *--b.pu = detail::table[v % 100].u; u = v;
        } } } }
        return b.pc + (u < 10);
      }
    public:
      static inline string_type convert(value_type v) {
        char buf[MaxValueSize];
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        char* p = generate(v, buf);
        char* e = buf + MaxValueSize;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(p, e);
      }
    };
    string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i); }
    string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(i); }
    unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
    void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif

#if defined(AK_BW)
  namespace bw {
    static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;
    typedef uint64_t u_type;

    template <typename value_type> class Proxy {

      static inline void generate(unsigned v, size_t len, char* buffer) {
        u_type u = v;
        switch(len) {
        default: u = (v * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 8) = detail::table[v -= 100 * u].u; 
        case  8: v = (u * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 6) = detail::table[u -= 100 * v].u; 
        case  6: u = (v * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 4) = detail::table[v -= 100 * u].u;
        case  4: v = (u * 167773) >> 24; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 2) = detail::table[u -= 100 * v].u;
        case  2: *(uint16_t*)buffer = detail::table[v].u;
        case  0: return;
        case  9: u = (v * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 7) = detail::table[v -= 100 * u].u;
        case  7: v = (u * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 5) = detail::table[u -= 100 * v].u;
        case  5: u = (v * 1374389535ULL) >> 37; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 3) = detail::table[v -= 100 * u].u;
        case  3: v = (u * 167773) >> 24; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + 1) = detail::table[u -= 100 * v].u;
        case  1: *buffer = v + 0x30;
        }
      }
    public:
      static inline string_type convert(bool neg, unsigned val) {
        char buf[16];
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        size_t len = detail::num_digits(val);
        buf[0] = '-';

        char* e = buf + neg;
        generate(val, len, e);
        e += len;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(buf, e);
      }
    };
    string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i < 0, i < 0 ? unsigned(~i) + 1 : i); }
    string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(false, i); }
    unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
    void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif

#if defined(AK_FW)
  namespace fw {
        static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;
        typedef uint32_t u_type;
        template <typename value_type> class Proxy {

        static inline void generate(unsigned v, size_t len, char* buffer) {
#if defined(__GNUC__) && defined(__x86_64__)
          uint16_t w;
          uint32_t u;
          __asm__ __volatile__ (
        "jmp %*T%=(,%3,8)       \n\t"
        "T%=: .quad L0%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L1%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L2%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L3%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L4%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L5%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L6%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L7%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L8%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L9%=        \n\t"
        "     .quad L10%=       \n\t"
        "L10%=:         \n\t"
        " imulq $1441151881, %q0, %q1\n\t"
        " shrq $57, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $100000000, %1, %1  \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, (%4)        \n\t"
        "L8%=:          \n\t"
        " imulq $1125899907, %q0, %q1\n\t"
        " shrq $50, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $1000000, %1, %1    \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -8(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L6%=:          \n\t"
        " imulq $429497, %q0, %q1   \n\t"
        " shrq $32, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $10000, %1, %1  \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -6(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L4%=:          \n\t"
        " imull $167773, %0, %1 \n\t"
        " shrl $24, %1      \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $100, %1, %1    \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -4(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L2%=:          \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q0,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -2(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L0%=: jmp 1f       \n\t"
        "L9%=:          \n\t"
        " imulq $1801439851, %q0, %q1\n\t"
        " shrq $54, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $10000000, %1, %1   \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, (%4)        \n\t"
        "L7%=:          \n\t"
        " imulq $43980466, %q0, %q1 \n\t"
        " shrq $42, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $100000, %1, %1 \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -7(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L5%=:          \n\t"
        " imulq $268436, %q0, %q1   \n\t"
        " shrq $28, %q1     \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1,2), %w2 \n\t"
        " imull $1000, %1, %1   \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -5(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L3%=:          \n\t"
        " imull $6554, %0, %1   \n\t"
        " shrl $15, %1      \n\t"
        " andb $254, %b1        \n\t"
        " movw %c5(,%q1), %w2   \n\t"
        " leal (%1,%1,4), %1    \n\t"
        " subl %1, %0       \n\t"
        " movw %w2, -3(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "L1%=:          \n\t"
        " addl $48, %0      \n\t"
        " movb %b0, -1(%4,%3)   \n\t"
        "1:             \n\t"
        : "+r"(v), "=&q"(u), "=&r"(w)
        : "r"(len), "r"(buffer), "i"(detail::table)
        : "memory", "cc"
          ); 
#else
          u_type u;
          switch(len) {
        default: u = (v * 1441151881ULL) >> 57; *(uint16_t*)(buffer) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 100000000;
        case  8: u = (v * 1125899907ULL) >> 50; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 8) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 1000000;
        case  6: u = (v * 429497ULL) >> 32; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 6) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 10000;
        case  4: u = (v * 167773) >> 24; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 4) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 100;
        case  2: *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 2) = detail::table[v].u;
        case  0: return;
        case  9: u = (v * 1801439851ULL) >> 54; *(uint16_t*)(buffer) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 10000000; 
        case  7: u = (v * 43980466ULL) >> 42; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 7) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 100000; 
        case  5: u = (v * 268436ULL) >> 28;  *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 5) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 1000;
        case  3: u = (v * 6554) >> 16; *(uint16_t*)(buffer + len - 3) = detail::table[u].u; v -= u * 10;
        case  1: *(buffer + len - 1) = v + 0x30;
          }
#endif
        }
      public:
        static inline string_type convert(bool neg, unsigned val) {
        char buf[16];
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        size_t len = detail::num_digits(val);
        if (neg) buf[0] = '-';
        char* e = buf + len + neg;
        generate(val, len, buf + neg);
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(buf, e);
        }
      };
      string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i < 0, i < 0 ? unsigned(~i) + 1 : i); }
      string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(false, i); }
      unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
      void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif
} // ak

namespace wm {
#ifdef WM_VEC
#if defined(__GNUC__) && defined(__x86_64__)
  namespace vec {
      static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;

      template <typename value_type> class Proxy {

      static inline unsigned generate(unsigned v, char* buf) {
        static struct {
          unsigned short mul_10[8];
          unsigned short div_const[8];
          unsigned short shl_const[8];
          unsigned char  to_ascii[16];
        } ALIGN(64) bits = 
        {
          { // mul_10
           10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10
          },
          { // div_const
            8389, 5243, 13108, 0x8000, 8389, 5243, 13108, 0x8000
          },
          { // shl_const
            1 << (16 - (23 + 2 - 16)),
            1 << (16 - (19 + 2 - 16)),
            1 << (16 - 1 - 2),
            1 << (15),
            1 << (16 - (23 + 2 - 16)),
            1 << (16 - (19 + 2 - 16)),
            1 << (16 - 1 - 2),
            1 << (15)
          },
          { // to_ascii 
            '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0',
            '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0', '0'
          }
        };
        unsigned x, y, l;
        x = (v * 1374389535ULL) >> 37;
        y = v;
        l = 0;
        if (x) {
          unsigned div = 0xd1b71759;
          unsigned mul = 55536;
          __m128i z, m, a, o;
          y -= 100 * x;
          z = _mm_cvtsi32_si128(x);
          m = _mm_load_si128((__m128i*)bits.mul_10);
          o = _mm_mul_epu32( z, _mm_cvtsi32_si128(div));
          z = _mm_add_epi32( z, _mm_mul_epu32( _mm_cvtsi32_si128(mul), _mm_srli_epi64( o, 45) ) );
          z = _mm_slli_epi64( _mm_shuffle_epi32( _mm_unpacklo_epi16(z, z), 5 ), 2 );
          a = _mm_load_si128((__m128i*)bits.to_ascii);
          z = _mm_mulhi_epu16( _mm_mulhi_epu16( z, *(__m128i*)bits.div_const ), *(__m128i*)bits.shl_const );
          z = _mm_sub_epi16( z, _mm_slli_epi64( _mm_mullo_epi16( m, z ), 16 ) );
          z = _mm_add_epi8( _mm_packus_epi16( z, _mm_xor_si128(o, o) ), a );
          x = __builtin_ctz( ~_mm_movemask_epi8( _mm_cmpeq_epi8( a, z ) ) );
          l = 8 - x;
          uint64_t q = _mm_cvtsi128_si64(z) >> (x * 8);
          *(uint64_t*)buf = q;
          buf += l;
          x = 1;
        }
        v = (y * 6554) >> 16;
        l += 1 + (x | (v != 0));
            *(unsigned short*)buf = 0x30 + ((l > 1) ? ((0x30 + y - v * 10) << 8) + v : y);
            return l;
        }
      public:
        static inline string_type convert(bool neg, unsigned val) {
        char buf[16];
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        buf[0] = '-';
        unsigned len = generate(val, buf + neg);
        char* e = buf + len + neg;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(buf, e);
        }
      };
      inline string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i < 0, i < 0 ? unsigned(~i) + 1 : i); }
      inline string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(false, i); }
      unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
      void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif
#endif
} // wm

namespace tmn {

#ifdef TM_CPP
  namespace cpp {
      static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;

      template <typename value_type> class Proxy {

        static inline void generate(unsigned v, char* buffer) {
          unsigned const f1_10000 = (1 << 28) / 10000;
          unsigned tmplo, tmphi;

          unsigned lo = v % 100000;
          unsigned hi = v / 100000;

          tmplo = lo * (f1_10000 + 1) - (lo >> 2);
          tmphi = hi * (f1_10000 + 1) - (hi >> 2);

          unsigned mask = 0x0fffffff;
          unsigned shift = 28;

          for(size_t i = 0; i < 5; i++)
          {
            buffer[i + 0] = '0' + (char)(tmphi >> shift);
            buffer[i + 5] = '0' + (char)(tmplo >> shift);
            tmphi = (tmphi & mask) * 5;
            tmplo = (tmplo & mask) * 5;
            mask >>= 1;
            shift--;
          }
        }
      public:
        static inline string_type convert(bool neg, unsigned val) {
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        char buf[16];
        size_t len = detail::num_digits(val);
        char* e = buf + 11;
        generate(val, buf + 1);
        buf[10 - len] = '-';
        len += neg;
        char* b = e - len;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(b, e);
        }
      };
      string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i < 0, i < 0 ? unsigned(~i) + 1 : i); }
      string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(false, i); }
      unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
      void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif

#ifdef TM_VEC
  namespace vec {
      static unsigned long cpu_cycles = 0;

      template <typename value_type> class Proxy {

        static inline unsigned generate(unsigned val, char* buffer) {
        static struct {
            unsigned char mul_10[16];
            unsigned char to_ascii[16];
            unsigned char gather[16];
            unsigned char shift[16];
        } ALIGN(64) bits = {
            { 10,0,0,0,10,0,0,0,10,0,0,0,10,0,0,0 },
            { '0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0','0' },
            { 3,5,6,7,9,10,11,13,14,15,0,0,0,0,0,0 },
            { 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15 }
        };

        unsigned u = val / 1000000;
        unsigned l = val - u * 1000000;

        __m128i x, h, f, m, n;

        n = _mm_load_si128((__m128i*)bits.mul_10);
        x = _mm_set_epi64x( l, u );
        h = _mm_mul_epu32( x, _mm_set1_epi32(4294968) );
        x = _mm_sub_epi64( x, _mm_srli_epi64( _mm_mullo_epi32( h, _mm_set1_epi32(1000) ), 32 ) );
        f = _mm_set1_epi32((1 << 28) / 1000 + 1);
        m = _mm_srli_epi32( _mm_cmpeq_epi32(m, m), 4 );
        x = _mm_shuffle_epi32( _mm_blend_epi16( x, h, 204 ), 177 );
        f = _mm_sub_epi32( _mm_mullo_epi32(f, x), _mm_srli_epi32(x, 2) );

        h = _mm_load_si128((__m128i*)bits.to_ascii);

        x = _mm_srli_epi32(f, 28);
        f = _mm_mullo_epi32( _mm_and_si128( f, m ), n );

        x = _mm_or_si128( x, _mm_slli_epi32(_mm_srli_epi32(f, 28), 8) );
        f = _mm_mullo_epi32( _mm_and_si128( f, m ), n );

        x = _mm_or_si128( x, _mm_slli_epi32(_mm_srli_epi32(f, 28), 16) );
        f = _mm_mullo_epi32( _mm_and_si128( f, m ), n );

        x = _mm_or_si128( x, _mm_slli_epi32(_mm_srli_epi32(f, 28), 24) );

        x = _mm_add_epi8( _mm_shuffle_epi8(x, *(__m128i*)bits.gather), h );
        l = __builtin_ctz( ~_mm_movemask_epi8( _mm_cmpeq_epi8( h, x ) ) | (1 << 9) );

        x = _mm_shuffle_epi8( x, _mm_add_epi8(*(__m128i*)bits.shift, _mm_set1_epi8(l) ) );

        _mm_store_si128( (__m128i*)buffer, x );
        return 10 - l;
        }

      public:
        static inline string_type convert(bool neg, unsigned val) {
#ifdef RDTSC
        long first_clock = __rdtsc();
#endif
        char arena[32];
        char* buf = (char*)((uintptr_t)(arena + 16) & ~(uintptr_t)0xf);
        *(buf - 1)= '-';
        unsigned len = generate(val, buf) + neg;
        buf -= neg;
        char* end = buf + len;
#ifdef RDTSC
        cpu_cycles += __rdtsc() - first_clock;
#endif
        return string_type(buf, end);
        }
      };
      string_type itostr(int i) { return Proxy<int>::convert(i < 0, i < 0 ? unsigned(~i) + 1 : i); }
      string_type itostr(unsigned i) { return Proxy<unsigned>::convert(false, i); }
      unsigned long cycles() { return cpu_cycles; }
      void reset() { cpu_cycles = 0; }
  }
#endif
}

bool fail(string in, string_type out) {
    cout << "failure: " << in << " => " << out << endl;
    return false;
}

#define TEST(x, n) \
    stringstream ss; \
    string_type s = n::itostr(x); \
    ss << (long long)x; \
    if (::strcmp(ss.str().c_str(), s.c_str())) { \
        passed = fail(ss.str(), s); \
        break; \
    }

#define test(x) { \
    passed = true; \
    if (0 && passed) { \
        char c = CHAR_MIN; \
        do { \
            TEST(c, x); \
        } while (c++ != CHAR_MAX); \
        if (!passed) cout << #x << " failed char!!!" << endl; \
    } \
    if (0 && passed) { \
        short c = numeric_limits<short>::min(); \
        do { \
            TEST(c, x); \
        } while (c++ != numeric_limits<short>::max()); \
        if (!passed) cout << #x << " failed short!!!" << endl; \
    } \
    if (passed) { \
        int c = numeric_limits<int>::min(); \
        do { \
            TEST(c, x); \
        } while ((c += 100000) < numeric_limits<int>::max() - 100000); \
        if (!passed) cout << #x << " failed int!!!" << endl; \
    } \
    if (passed) { \
        unsigned c = numeric_limits<unsigned>::max(); \
        do { \
            TEST(c, x); \
        } while ((c -= 100000) > 100000); \
        if (!passed) cout << #x << " failed unsigned int!!!" << endl; \
    } \
}

#define time(x, N) \
if (passed) { \
    static const int64_t limits[] = \
        {0, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, \
         1000000, 10000000, 100000000, 1000000000, 10000000000ULL }; \
    long passes = 0; \
    cout << #x << ": "; \
    progress_timer t; \
    uint64_t s = 0; \
    if (do_time) { \
        for (int n = 0; n < N1; n++) { \
            int i = 0; \
            while (i < N2) { \
                int v = ((NM - i) % limits[N]) | (limits[N] / 10); \
                int w = x::itostr(v).size() + \
                    x::itostr(-v).size(); \
                i += w * mult; \
                                passes++; \
            } \
            s += i / mult; \
        } \
    } \
    k += s; \
    cout << N << " digits: " \
          << s / double(t.elapsed()) * CLOCKS_PER_SEC/1000000 << " MB/sec, " << (x::cycles() / passes >> 1) << " clocks per pass "; \
    x::reset(); \
}

#define series(n) \
    { if (do_test) test(n);    if (do_time) time(n, 1); if (do_time) time(n, 2); \
      if (do_time) time(n, 3); if (do_time) time(n, 4); if (do_time) time(n, 5); \
      if (do_time) time(n, 6); if (do_time) time(n, 7); if (do_time) time(n, 8); \
      if (do_time) time(n, 9); if (do_time) time(n, 10); }

int N1 = 1, N2 = 500000000, NM = INT_MAX;
int mult = 1; //  used to stay under timelimit on ideone
unsigned long long k = 0;

int main(int argc, char** argv) {
    bool do_time = 1, do_test = 1;
    bool passed = true;
#ifdef HOPMAN_FAST
    series(hopman_fast)
#endif
#ifdef WM_VEC
    series(wm::vec)
#endif
#ifdef TM_CPP
    series(tmn::cpp)
#endif
#ifdef TM_VEC
    series(tmn::vec)
#endif
#ifdef AK_UNROLLED
    series(ak::unrolled)
#endif
#if defined(AK_BW)
    series(ak::bw)
#endif
#if defined(AK_FW)
    series(ak::fw)
#endif
    return k;
}