请提供证明是凸。这里，和分别是标准的普通PDF和CDF。 ∀X>0φ$Q\left(x\right)=x^{2}+x\frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)}$$\forall x>0$$\phi$$\mathbf{\Phi}$

尝试的步骤

1）计算方法

我已经尝试了演算方法，并为第二个导数提供了一个公式，但是无法证明它是正。如果您需要更多详细信息，请告诉我。$\forall x > 0$

最后， ∂Q（X

$$\begin{eqnarray*} \text{Let }Q\left(x\right)=x^{2}+x\frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)} \end{eqnarray*}$$ ∂ Q （X $$\begin{eqnarray*} \frac{\partial Q\left(x\right)}{\partial x} & = & 2x+x\left[-\frac{x\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)}-\left\{ \frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)}\right\} ^{2}\right]+\frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)} \end{eqnarray*}$$ ∂ 2 Q（X $$\begin{eqnarray*} \left.\frac{\partial Q\left(x\right)}{\partial x}\right|_{x=0} & = & \frac{\phi\left(0\right)}{\Phi\left(0\right)}>0 \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} \frac{\partial^{2}Q\left(x\right)}{\partial x^{2}} & = & 2+x\phi\left(x\right)\left[\frac{-\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)+x^{2}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)+3x\phi\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)+2\phi^{2}\left(x\right)}{\Phi^{3}\left(x\right)}\right]+2\left[-x\frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)}-\left\{ \frac{\phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi\left(x\right)}\right\} ^{2}\right] \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} & = & 2+\phi\left(x\right)\left[\frac{x^{3}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)+3x^{2}\phi\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)+2x\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-3x\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)-2\phi\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi^{3}\left(x\right)}\right]\\ \end{eqnarray*}$$ 设， ķ（X）=2Φ3（X）+2Xφ3（X）+Φ2 $$\begin{eqnarray*} & = & \left[\frac{2\Phi^{3}\left(x\right)+x^{3}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+3x^{2}\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)+2x\phi^{3}\left(x\right)-3x\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)-2\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)}{\Phi^{3}\left(x\right)}\right] \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} \text{Let, }K\left(x\right)=2\Phi^{3}\left(x\right)+2x\phi^{3}\left(x\right)+\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)x\left[x^{2}-3\right]+\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)\left[3x^{2}-2\right] \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} K\left(0\right)=\frac{1}{4}-\frac{1}{2\pi}>0 \end{eqnarray*}$$ 对于$x\geq\sqrt{3},K\left(x\right)>0$。对于$x\in\left(0,\sqrt{3}\right)$， $$\begin{eqnarray*} K'\left(x\right) & = & 6\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+2\phi^{3}\left(x\right)-6x^{2}\phi^{3}\left(x\right)+2\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\left[x^{3}-3x\right]-\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)\left[x^{4}-3x^{2}\right]+\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)\left[3x^{2}-3\right]\\ & & -2\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)\left[3x^{3}-2x\right]+\phi^{3}\left(x\right)\left[3x^{2}-2\right]+\phi^{2}\left(x\right)\Phi\left(x\right)6x \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} K'\left(x\right) & = & 6\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)-3\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+2\phi^{3}\left(x\right)-2\phi^{3}\left(x\right)+6x\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-6x\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)+3x^{2}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+3x^{2}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)\\ & & +2x^{3}\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-6x^{3}\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)+3x^{2}\phi^{3}\left(x\right)-6x^{2}\phi^{3}\left(x\right)+4x\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-x^{4}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right) \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} & = & 3\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+6x^{2}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)+4x\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-3x^{2}\phi^{3}\left(x\right)-x^{4}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)-4x^{3}\Phi\left(x\right)\phi^{2}\left(x\right) \end{eqnarray*}$$ $$\begin{eqnarray*} =\phi\left(x\right)\left[3\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)+x\left\{ 6x\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)-3x\phi^{2}\left(x\right)-x^{3}\Phi^{2}\left(x\right)+4\Phi\left(x\right)\phi\left(x\right)\left[1-x^{2}\right]\right\} \right] \end{eqnarray*}$$

2）图形/数值方法

通过绘制如下图，我也能够从数字和视觉上看到它。但是拥有适当的证明会有所帮助。

让我们证明对的二阶导数是正的。首先，我们需要知道如何区分和。$Q$$x \ge 0$$\Phi$$\phi$

根据定义，

$$\frac{d}{dx}\Phi(x) = \phi(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}} \exp(-x^2/2).$$ 再次与众不同

$$\frac{d}{dx}\phi(x) = -x \phi(x).$$

将此结果应用于另一个衍生收益

$$\frac{d^2}{dx^2}\phi(x) = (-1 + x^2)\phi(x).$$

使用这些结果，再加上通常的乘积和商的微分规则，我们发现二阶导数的分子是六个项的总和。（此结果是在问题的中间获得的。） 将术语分为三组很方便：

$$\eqalign{ \Phi(x)^3\frac{d^2}{dx^2}Q(x)= &2 x \phi(x)^3 \\ &+\,3 x^2 \phi(x)^2 \Phi(x)+x^3 \phi(x) \Phi(x)^2 \\ &+\,\Phi(x) \left(-2 \phi(x)^2-3 x \phi(x) \Phi(x)+2 \Phi(x)^2\right). }$$

因为是概率密度，所以它是非负数，分布函数也是如此。因此，当时，只有第三项可能为负。它的符号与第二个因子的符号相同，$\phi$$\Phi$$x\ge 0$

$$R(x) = -2 \phi(x)^2-3 x \phi(x) \Phi(x)+2 \Phi(x)^2.$$

有很多方法可以表明该因素不能为负。一是要注意

$$R(0) = -2\phi(0) + 2\Phi(0) = 1 - \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi}} \gt 0.$$

使用与以前相同的简单技术进行区分

$$\frac{d}{dx} R(x) = \phi(x)(x \phi(x) + (1 + 3x^2)\Phi(x))$$

对于，它显然是正的。因此，是区间的递增函数。它的最小值必须为，证明所有。$x\ge 0$$R(x)$$[0, \infty)$$R(0) \gt 0$$R(x)\gt 0$$x \ge 0$

我们已经证明对于，QED具有正二阶导数。$Q$$x \ge 0$